Screening for early detection of Colorectal Cancer Research Paper

Screening for early detection of Colorectal Cancer - Research Paper Example The condition in its early stages may not be noticed by the person concerned, but can be detected in a number of ways. The United States Preventative Services Task Force recommends that every citizen aged between 50 and 75 be tested, thus prolonging the lives of 60 % of those affected. Those over this age can request a test. Detection can be done by testing stools for the presence of blood. This is done either using the chemical guaiac or by seeking for antibodies. Somewhat more invasive is a sigmoidoscopy, i.e. the lower bowel is examined using a flexible tube. A colonoscopy is a more extensive version of this, but searches the whole colon and may involve the removal of any suspicious polyps. This would normally be a follow up to other tests. In some cases a barium enema is used and the results x-rayed. In some cases a complete stool is sent for analysis. There is continued research on this topic. Pertinent issues to the delivery of healthcare raised by this topic. Because this cond ition is so prevalent in American society it is important that as much as possible to cut its incidence and severity as a life threatening condition. This can be done be early detection so that any polyps can be removed before they become cancerous. Therefore it is necessary that all those aged 50 – 70 have regular checks – perhaps every two years. If this is to be achieved the subject will need publicity, education, central organization and funding. Another area that requires public education would be in the area of diet. Americans tend to consume a high fat, high dairy food diet. Something similar to the ‘5 a day’ campaign in the United Kingdom . ... Something similar to the ‘5 a day’ campaign in the United Kingdom - that is the promotion of the idea that everyone needs to eat at least 5 portions of fruit and vegetables each day. ( NHS Choices , 5 a Day). Putnam, Allshouse and Kantor (2002) report a huge jump in average calorie intake within the United States over the last 25 years, this despite a recent tendency to use lower fat options. According to a report cited by Barone, (2007) those with colon cancer who ate a healthier diet, i.e. one based upon fruit, vegetables, poultry and fish, stand a better chance of total recovery than those who continue to consume lots of red meat, fats, refined carbohydrates, fat and sugar. The latter have a higher chance of the cancer recurring according to a study by Meyerhardt. Government Involvement In 2010 the NIH Consensus Development Program, part of the United States Human and Health Services, produced a statement entitled ‘Enhancing Use and Quality of Colorectal Cancer Screening.’ This document covers such things as trends in screening and how this might be improved. It considers such things as how screening can be monitored and what research is required and so indicates that this topic is one of concern to government agencies. The aim was ‘To provide health care providers, patients, and the general public with a responsible assessment of currently available data on enhancing use and quality of colorectal cancer screening.’ In 2004 the American Food and Drug Administration approved new treatment for advanced colorectal cancer. However more new treatments have since become available and require assessment and acceptance. Literature National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of

History about African American Baseball Research Paper

History about African American Baseball - Research Paper Example Thesis statement: The history of the African American baseball proves the significance of the same as an innovative mode of protest against racism, segregation and marginalization (special references to the origin, growth and development of African American Baseball). The origin of African American baseball The history of African American Baseball is interconnected with the formation of Colored Union Club and Pythian Club in 1860s (in Brooklyn and Philadelphia, respectively). But these African American Baseball teams were considered as amateur teams. One can see that professionalism in African American Baseball begins in 1880s, with the formation of a number of all-black teams, like Cuban Giants. To be specific, in 1800s, formation of the amateur and the professional baseball teams divided the African American baseball into two. As pointed out, the decision of National Association of Base Ball Players limited the growth and development of African American Baseball into professionalis m. Dreifort states that â€Å"Discrimination, bigotry, fear, and violence dogged black players and restricted their opportunities and progress in organized baseball† (62). Later, the decision taken by the African Americans to form all black teams was considered as the first step to fight against the barrier of racism. Growth of African American baseball

Fluid Catalytic Cracking Process Engineering Essay

Fluid Catalytic Cracking Process Engineering Essay INTRODUCTION Fluid catalytic cracking process, which is now more than 60 years old, is the cornerstone of most of the petroleum refineries. It has proven to be the most-efficient process available for the conversion of gas oils and residue into more valuable lighter hydrocarbons. Many refiners consider the catalytic cracking process to be the highest profit generating unit in the entire refinery. In earlier times, Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU) was operated broadly in two modes, they are; Maximum gasoline mode Maximum distillate mode But with the advent of Reformulated gasoline (RFG), these are now operated in maximum olefin mode. FCCU is a very sophisticated unit with many factors affecting each other and the overall process. In some processes investigation of factors impact is done by changing one factor at a time while keeping other factors constant. In case of FCCU it is almost practically impossible to obtain a clear indication; as, change in one single factor leads to change(s) in one or more other factors. This whole phenomenon is a natural consequence of the heat balance of FCCU. If the unit is to operate at steady state, then the unit has to be in heat balance condition. At this stage the heat requirement in the reactor is satisfied by burning coke in the regenerator and transferring the energy to the reactor through circulating hot catalyst. Heat balance around the reactor-regenerator can be used to predict the effects of process changes although the exact degree of the changes may be difficult to estab lish. It is one step at a time thought process and rather difficult to pin down exact numbers without a careful study of yields and coke laydown rates as affected by changing variables. In this work a plant data is taken as reference and based on that, calculations have been done to find out the net heat of endothermic reactions occurring in the riser reactor, assuming that the unit is operating at steady state and that the riser is an isothermal one. Then as per the products slate, a 7-lumped model is considered from various literatures and based on the kinetics of reactions, rate equations are formed and with the knowledge of available kinetic parameters the differential temperature drops along the height of the riser are calculated. PROCESS DESCRIPTION More than a dozen types of FCCU are operating worldwide. But the basic designs of all these type remain the same. FCCU comprises of two parts; Riser reactor, in which catalytic cracking reactions occur Regenerator, in which burning of coke (deposited during cracking) from the catalytic sites is done Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of a typical FCCU. The feed is preheated in a furnace and (Figure: 1- Schematic Diagram of a typical FCCU) injected at the bottom of the riser along with a small amount of steam. This steam helps in dispersion of feed, good atomization and reduces coke formation by decreasing the partial pressure of hydrocarbon vapours. The feed is subsequently vaporized when it comes in contact with the hot catalyst from regenerator. The hydrocarbon vapours so formed undergo endothermic cracking reactions on their way up through the riser. The expansion of product vapours occurs through the length of the riser and the gas velocity increases with decreasing gas density. Hot catalyst particles provide the sensible heat and latent heat requirements for vaporizing the liquid feed and also endothermic heat of reaction for the cracking reactions. After a certain distance from the entry zone of the riser, the liquid feed is completely vaporized. Cracking reactions continue with the vapours moving up in the riser and the temperature is dropped along the length of the riser due to endothermic nature of cracking. The catalytic cracking is started and also completed in a very short period of time inside the riser reactor in which the catalyst is pushed upward by incorporating steam at various locations along the length of the riser and hydrocarbon vapours. Mixture of catalyst and hydrocarbon vapour travels up in the riser into the reactors. Steams injected at different locations in the riser are as follows, Fluffing steam at the bottom of the riser Dispersion steam along with fresh feed injectors Riser dilution steam above the fresh feed injectors Dispersion steam along with recycle stream injectors Aeration steam into the riser J bend to fluidize the catalyst Along with this some other locations are there where steam is injected. They are as follows; Spent catalyst standpipe aeration steam Regenerated catalyst standpipe aeration steam Reactor quench steam Reactor dome steam Post riser quench steam Stripping steam into strippers Mixture of catalyst and hydrocarbon vapour is discharged from the riser to the riser cyclone assembly. The bulk of the spent catalyst is separated from product vapours in the cyclone assembly. If necessary the vapours leaving the riser cyclones are routed into secondary cyclone assembly located inside the reactor vessel. Separated catalysts flow through each cyclone dip leg into the stripper. Product vapours leave the reactor cyclones and flow into the main fractionator through the reactor overhead vapour line. Quench steam is injected inside the reactor vessel to reduce the temperature, so as to minimize post riser thermal cracking reactions and coke formation. Reactor dome steam is provided to sweep hydrocarbons and avoid dead areas on top of the reactor vessel that may lead to thermal cracking and coking in that area. The separated catalyst from the riser and reactor cyclone assemblies enters the catalyst stripper. As the catalyst flows down the stripper, it gets stripped off the entrained hydrocarbon vapours by the up flowing steam. Stripping enhances the product recovery and reduces the carryover of hydrocarbon to the regenerator along with the spent catalyst thereof. Fluffing steam ensures the fluidization of the circulating catalyst. Stripped catalyst from the stripper flows into the regenerator dense bed through the spent catalyst standpipe (SCSP). Catalyst level in the stripper is maintained by spent catalyst slide valve (SCSV). Aeration steam is provided in the SCSP to ensure proper flow and fluidization of spent catalyst. Coke adsorbed on the spent catalyst during cracking reaction is been removed in the regenerator by burning off the coke with air. Air is supplied from the air blower to the regenerator through multiple distributors. Air is also introduced at different locations of the regenerator, they are as follows; T-grid air Regenerated catalyst standpipe (RCSP) hopper aeration air RCSP aeration air Regenerator fluffing air at the bottom near the J bend The regenerator can be operated in two modes; Partial combustion mode Complete combustion mode For partial combustion mode, a CO boiler is needed to convert CO to CO2. The current discussion is for complete combustion mode regenerator. Flue gas from the regenerated dense bed flows to the two stage regenerator cyclone assembly. Here the entrained catalyst is separated from the flue gas. The separated catalyst flows back to the dense bed through cyclone dip legs. Flue gas from the cyclone flows out from top of the regenerator through a flue gas line. Total air flow to the regenerator is regulated based on the desired level of oxygen in flue gas. Too low O2 concentration will cause coke build up on regenerated catalyst and CO release from regenerator. Too high O2 concentration will lead to regenerator cooling. So, regenerator flue gas is regularly examined for O2, CO, CO2, NO2, SO2 analysis. FEED CHARACTERIZATION The only constant in FCC operation is the frequent change in feedstock quality. Thats why two feeds with similar boiling point ranges can exhibit huge differences in cracking performance and product yields. Feed characterization is one of the most important activities in monitoring the FCC process. Feed characterization is the process of determining physical and chemical properties of the feed. Understanding feed properties and also knowing their impact on units performance is an essential thing. Trouble shooting, catalyst selection, unit optimization and subsequent process evaluation, all depend on feedstock. Feed characterization relates product yields and qualities to feed quality. Analytical techniques like mass spectrometry are sophisticated and not practical for determining complete composition of FCC feedstock. Simpler empirical correlations are often used. They are as follows; oAPI gravity and UOP K Boiling range Average boiling point Carbon residue Metals Sulphur, Nitrogen and Oxygen oAPI gravity and UOP K It is a specific gravity relating the density of oil to the density of water. The empirical formula for this is; oAPI 131.5 (3.1) Feed to an FCC can range from 15o to 45o API. If the API gravity increases the charge stock will crack more readily and for the same reaction temperature there will be greater conversion. Secondly at a constant conversion level, there will be greater gasoline yield with slightly lower octane. A rough indication of the quantities of paraffin present is a characterization factor which relates boiling point to specific gravity, is called the UOP K factor. This is given by; (3.2) Where: CABP = cubic average boiling point, oR SG = specific gravity at 60 oF Higher the UOP K value more is the paraffinic nature of the feedstock. Boiling Range The boiling range of FCC feed varies from an initial point of 500oF to an endpoint of about 1000oF. There are two boiling point ranges which are used to describe the lighter material in the feed. They are; Per cent over 430oF Per cent over 650oF The first quantifies the amount of gasoline in the feed. The second one quantifies the light fuel oil in the charge. Average boiling point Average boiling point of the FCC feed depends on the average molecular weight. An increase in average boiling point and molecular weight will typically cause the following; The charge will crack more readily, so at constant reactor temperature conversion will increase At constant conversion, yield of C4 and lighter will decrease Olefinic content of the product will decrease Regenerator temperature will tend to rise At constant conversion, the gasoline yield will increase about 1% for an increase in the molecular weight of 20. Carbon residue The carbon residue of a feedstock is an indirect measure of its coke producing nature. Values may be determined by either Conradson or Ramsbottom methods. The carbon residue can be a useful number for determining possible contamination in storage. Entrainment in vacuum tower is a common cause of increased carbon residue. Colour may be used to approximately evaluate the carbon content of the feedstock. Darker stocks tend to have higher carbon residues. Metals Organometallic compounds in the FCC feed can cause serious overcracking if the metals deposit on the catalyst. The cleanliness of a chargestock is given by a metals factor: Fm = Fe + V + 10 (Ni + Cu) (3.3) Where: Fm = Metals Factor Fe = Iron concentration V = Vanadium concentration Ni = Nickel concentration Cu = Copper concentration All metal concentrations are ppm by weight in the feed. A factor of 1.0 is considered safe, over 3.0 indicate a danger of poisoning of catalyst. Sulfur, Nitrogen, Oxygen Sulfur is as undesirable in FCC feed as it is in the feed to most of the refining units, causing corrosion of the equipment and increased difficulty in treating products. At 50% conversion about 35% sulfur charged is converted to H2S, and at 70% conversion the figure will rise to 50%. Nitrogen produces NH3 and CN- in the reactors, and NOx and trace quantities of NH3 in the regenerator. These NH3 and CN- cause plugging and corrosion, while the NOx and NH3 in the flue gas cause environmental problems. Gas oil will absorb oxygen in storage unless the tanks are gas blanketed. This oxygen will combine with the compounds in the oil at about 450oF to form gum, which fouls heat exchangers. FCC REACTION CHEMISTRY Cracking reactions are predominantly catalytic, but some non-selective thermal cracking reactions do take place. The two processes proceed via different chemistry. The occurrence of both the reactions is confirmed by distribution of products. Catalytic cracking proceeds mainly via carbenium ion intermediates. There are three dominant reactions in cracking are catalytic cracking, isomerization, hydrogen transfer. The idealized reaction classes are tabled below with specific reactions to support them. (Table: 1 idealized reactions of importance in FCCU) Reaction classes Specific reactions Cracking n-C10H22 n-C7H16 + C3H6 ; 1-C8H16 2C4H8 Hydrogen transfer 4C6H12 3C6H14 + C6H6 ; cyclo-C6H12 + 3 1-C5H10 3n-C5H12 + C6H6 Isomerization 1-C4H8 trans-2-C4H8 ; n-C6H10 iso-C4H10 ; o-C6H4(CH3)2 m- C6H4(CH3)2 Transalkylation C6H6 + m- C6H4(CH3)2 2C6H5CH3 Cyclization 1-C7H14 CH3-cyclo-C6H11 Dealkylation Iso-C3H7-C6H5 C6H6 + C3H6 Dehydrogenation n-C6H14 1-C6H12 + H2 Polymerization 3C2H4 1-C6H12 Paraffin alkylation 1-C4H8 + iso-C4H10 iso-C8H18 Some of the reactions are endothermic in nature and some are exothermic in nature. Each reaction has a heat of reaction associated with it. The overall heat of reaction is the combination of both the types of heat of reactions. Though there are a number of exothermic reactions, then also the net reaction is endothermic. It is apparent that the type and magnitude of reactions have an impact on the heat balance of the unit. If the catalyst is with less hydrogen transfer characteristics, it will cause the net heat of reaction to be more endothermic. This in turn results in higher catalyst circulation and possibly a higher coke yield to maintain the heat balance. FCC UNIT MATERIAL BALANCE For this, a complete set of commercial plant data is used. The data is given in subsequent tables below; FEEDSTOCK (Table: 2 Properties of feed components) Feed Unit Hydrotreated VGO Un-hydrotreated VGO Light Coker Naphtha Quantity,TMTPA 3200 800 170 % of total feed wt% 76.74 19.18 4.08 Density @ 15oC gm/cc 0.894 0.932 0.6762 CCR wt% 0.1 1.2 Sulfur wt% 0.1 3.32 0.434 Hydrogen content wt% 13 Ni + V wppm 1 6.38 Nitrogen wppm 500 1594 30 ASTM Distillation, vol.% D-1160, oC D-1160, oC D-86, oC IBP 366 349 36 5 374 379 10 385 394 43 30 420 435 49 50 443 468 57 70 485 508 65 90 545 556 75 95 576 573 FBP 620 609 86 Bromine no. 107.86 Paraffins vol.% 46.7 Olefins vol.% 43.38 Naphthenes vol.% 7.25 Aromatics vol.% 2.68 RON, clear 79.4 Diene value 5.31 WATSON K 12.436 MW 82.001 PRODUCT YIELDS (Table: 3- product yields, Ex-reactor and Perfect fractionator basis) Products wt % Weight (lbs. /hr.) H2S 0.39 4309 Hydrogen 0.041 606 Methane 1.06 11710 Ethane 1.54 17010 ethylene 1.76 19442 Dry gas 4.401 48768 Propane 2.86 31592 Propylene 9.66 106708 n-butane 1.69 18668 i-butane 5.52 60976 butenes 7.47 82516 LPG 27.2 300460 LCN 14.50 160174 MCN 23.40 257978 HCN 3.90 43082 LCO 16.45 181713 CLO 4.75 153347 COKE 5.01 - OPERATING CONDITIONS (Table: 4- Operating conditions for the Unit) Riser-Reactor Unit Value Fresh heavy feed rate (VGO) m3/hr. 533.4 Fresh light feed rate (Coker naphtha) m3/hr. 30.2 CLO recycle m3/hr. 46 Riser top temperature oC 540 Riser top pressure Kg/cm2 1.5 Feed preheat temperature oC 350 Regenerator Air to regenerator (dry basis) Nm3/hr. 310717 Regenerator pressure Kg/cm2 1.9 Dense bed temperature oC 640 Dilute bed temperature oC 654 Flue gas temperature oC 657 Blower discharge temperature oC 226 Stripper Stripping steam rate Kg/hr. 5000 Stripping steam temperature oC 290 Stripping steam pressure Kg/cm2 10.5 Base temperature oC 0 Ambient temperature oC 35 Flue gas composition MW= 30.6 O2 vol. % 2.49 CO vol. % 0.005 CO2 vol. % 15.58 N2 vol. % 81.83 SO2 vol. % 0.085 SO3 vol. % 0.01 Now using the above data, amount of oxygen that was consumed by burning the hydrogen in coke is estimated. All the gas calculations are based upon 100 moles of flue gas. The oxygen consumed for H2O is given by the expression; O2 consumed = * (vol. % of N2 in flue gas) 2 * (vol. % of O2 in flue gas) 2 * (vol. % of CO2 in flue gas) (vol. % of CO in flue gas) (5.1) So, O2 consumed = * (81.83) 2 * (2.49) 2 * (15.58) (0.005) = 7.36 The weight of the hydrogen and carbon in the coke are calculated; Weight = 2.016 * (7.36) + 12.01 * (15.58+0.005) = 202.01 The temperature differentials are calculated; (oF basis) ΆTRR = (Regenerator dense bed temperature Riser outlet temperature) (5.2) = 1184 1004 ΆTRR = 180 ΆTRB = (Regenerator fluegas temperature Blower discharge temperature) (5.3) = 1215 439 ΆTRB = 776 ΆTRS = (Riser outlet temperature Stripping steam temperature) (5.4) = 1004 554 ΆTRS = 450 The weight combined feed ratio is calculated as; (Flow rate)CLO * (Density)CLO * 2.204 CFR = (5.5) (Flow rate)Fresh feed * (density)fresh feed * 2.204 = CFR = 0.074 The stripping steam and inert gases carried to the reactor by the regenerated catalyst are calculated on a weight per pound fresh feed basis; Steam = (5.6) Steam = 0.01 Inert gases = (5.7) Inert gases = 0.007 The amount of hydrogen in the coke is calculated as; Hydrogen in Coke, wt % = [2.016 * 7.36 / 202.01] * 100 % = 7.35 wt. % The air to coke ratio is; Air to coke, wt/wt = (2897/202.01) * (81.83/79) Air to coke, wt/wt = 14.85 lbs air / lb coke Where; 2897 is the molecular weight of air multiplied by 100 (basis of 100 moles of flue gas) The weight of coke per hour may be calculated as; Weight of coke, lbs/hr. = (4591) * 193.23 / 14.85 = 59738.6 lbs/hr. Where; (310717 Nm3/hr. = 5178.62 Nm3/min. = 193.23 MSCFM 4591 = air rate conversion factor from MSCFM to lbs/hr.) So, weight % of coke is then; wt. % coke = * 100% = (59738.6 / 1104941.7) * 100 % wt. % coke = 5.41 In the product yield table, the coke wt. % is indicted as 5.01 wt%. But it is calculated as 5.41 wt. %. Now the overall weight balance is as follows; OVERALL WEIGHT BALANCE INPUT:- = Fresh feed + Coker naphtha + CLO recycle = {(533.4 * 0.8 * 894 * 2.204) + (533.4 * 0.2 * 932 * 2.204)} + (30.2 * 676.2 * 2.204) + (46 * 808 * 2.204) = 1186860.1 lbs. / hr. OUTPUT:- = Total product yields + coke = 1149831 + 59738.6 = 1209569.6 lbs. / hr. So, error in weight balance is calculated as; = INPUT OUTPUT = (1186860.1 1209596.6) lbs. / hr. = 22736.5 lbs. / hr. = 1.88 wt. % = 98.12 % closure Now combustion heat of coke is determined as follows; (at hottest temperature = flue gas temperature = 1215oF) ΆHcomb = [(X) (vol. % of CO in flue gas) + (Y) (vol. % of CO2 in flue gas) + (Z) (vol. % of O2 consumed)] / (weight if hydrogen and carbon in coke) (5.8) = [(48000) * (0.005) + (169743) * (15.58) + (106472) * (7.36)] / 202.01 ΆHcomb = 16971.8 Btu / lb coke Where; X = heat of combustion of CO at 1215oF Y = heat of combustion of CO2 at 1215oF Z = heat of combustion of H2O at 1215oF There is correction factor for the hydrogen in coke, this is given as; Correction factor, C = 1133 (134.6) (wt. % hydrogen) (5.9) = 1133 (134.6) (7.35) = 143.7 The net heat of combustion after using the correction factor is; -ΆHC = 16971.8 + 143.7 Btu / lb coke -ΆHC = 17115.5 Btu / lb coke At this point the reactor and regenerator heat balances are calculated. The catalyst supplies the heat to the reactor. The regenerator heat balance is calculated first using a basis of one pound of coke at the hottest regenerator temperature. The reactor heat balance is based on one pound of fresh feed. HEAT BALANCE REGENERATOR HEAT (Figure: 2- Regenerator heat In Out scheme) HEATREG = ΆHCOMB. ΆHCOKE ΆHAIR ΆHRADIATION LOSS (6.1) Now, ΆHCOKE = heat required to raise coke to combustion temperature = (0.4) * (ΆTRR) (6.2) ΆHAIR = heat required to raise air to combustion temperature = (lb air / lb coke) * (0.26) * (ΆTRB) (6.3) ΆHRADIATION LOSS = 250 Btu / lb coke So, HEATREG = 17115.5 {(0.4) * (180)} {(14.85) * (0.26) * (776)} 250 HEATREGHEATREG = 13797.4 Btu / lb coke -ΆHCSo, regenerator efficiency = *100% (6.4) = 80.6 REACTOR HEAT (Figure: 3- Reactor heat In Out scheme) HEATRX = ΆHFRESH FEED + ΆHRECYCLE + ΆHSTRIPPING STEAM + ΆHREACTION + ΆHRADIATION LOSS + ΆHINERTS (6.5) ΆHFRESH FEED, ΆHRECYCLE = heat required to raise fresh feed recycle to reactor temperature ΆHSTRIPPING STEAM = heat required to raise steam to reactor temperature = ΆTRS * (0.485) * (lb steam / lb fresh feed) (6.6) ΆHRADIATION LOSS = 2 Btu / lb fresh feed ΆHINERTS = heat of inert gases carried from regenerator to reactor by regenerated catalyst = ΆTRR * (-0.275) * (lb inerts / lb fresh feed) (6.7) HEATRX = (enthalpy of fresh feed at riser outlet temperature enthalpy of fresh feed at preheat temperature) + CFR (enthalpy of recycle feed at riser outlet temperature enthalpy of recycle feed) + ΆTRS * (0.485) * (lb steam / lb fresh feed) + 2 Btu / lb fresh feed + ΆTRR * (-0.275) * (lb inerts / lb fresh feed) + ΆHREACTION = (745 460) + 0.074 * (745 460) + 450 * (0.485) * 0.01 + 2 + 180 * (-0.275) * 0.007 + ΆHREACTION HEATRX = 310 + ΆHREACTION Note:- Enthalpies for the fresh feed and the recycle feed were calculated by taking respective UOP K values, oAPIs and the temperatures from the API technical data book. Regenerator heat is calculated on a one lb of coke basis. This can be converted to one lb of fresh feed by use of weight % of coke term. So, HEATRX = HEATREG () (6.8) ΆHREACTION + HEATRX = HEATREG () + ΆHREACTION (6.9) ΆHREACTION = HEATREG () + ΆHREACTION + HEATRX (6.10) But HEATRX = + ΆHREACTION Putting this relation in equation (6.10), the equation changes to ΆHREACTION = HEATREG () ΆHREACTION = 13797.4 * 310 ΆHREACTION = 436.44 Btu / lb fresh feed So, HEATRX = 310 + 436.44 HEATRX = 746.44 Btu / lb fresh feed (0.275) (ΆTRR)Cat / Oil (wt. / wt.) = HEATRX (6.11) Cat / Oil (wt. / wt.) = 15 lb Catalyst / lb Oil Catalyst circulation rate = (Cat / Oil) * (lb fresh feed / hr.) (6.12) = 15 * 1104941.8 CCR = 16574127 lbs. / hr. = 7524 MT/ hr. Overall heat flow scheme for the whole FCCU can be shown as below; (Figure: 4- Typical FCCU heat balance scheme) Now, the net total endothermic heat of reaction is calculated through empirical formulae. But we took the assumption as the riser is an isothermal one. Practically it is not isothermal. The temperature at the base of the riser is higher than what is at the top of the riser or at the riser outlet. This is because the cracking reactions occurring along the length of the riser is endothermic in nature. So heat is being absorbed during the reaction and causes the temperature at that particular location to decrease. Gradually the temperature decreases and at the riser outlet the temperature is dropped significantly. In this context we can estimate the riser base temperature using empirical relations and therefore can estimate the drop in temperature at the next differential element up in the riser [DNS]. But before this a multi-lumped model is to be considered along with possible reaction schemes and there kinetic parameters. SEVEN LUMP KINETIC MODEL For this purpose a seven lump kinetic model proposed by Mehran Heydari et al. (2010) is used. They divided the model into seven lumps namely; VGO/Coker Naphtha, Clarified Oil, Light Cycle Oil, gasoline (LCN, MCN, and HCN), LPG, Dry gas and Coke. The schematic flow diagram is as follows; (Figure: 5- Seven lump kinetic model in FCCU) In order to develop a mathematical model for this particular system, certain assumptions has to be taken, they are as follows; The riser is an one dimensional ideal plug flow reactor with no radial and axial dispersion Reactor is an adiabatic riser Feed viscosity and heat capacities of all components are constant Fluid flow is not affected by the coke deposition on the catalyst Feed is vaporized instantaneously in the riser entrance All cracking reactions are taking place in the riser The model considers seven lumps and eighteen reactions and eighteen kinetic constants. Molecular weights of different lumps and boiling ranges are given [DNS] in the table below; (Table: 5- molecular weights and boiling ranges of lumps) j Lump Molecular weight (Kg/ Kmol) Boiling range (oC) 1 VGO 418.7 349 620 2 CLO 291 232 -567 3 LCO 226 170 392 4 GASOLINE 114 30 228 5 LPG 65 6 DRY GAS 30 7 COKE 12 Values of kinetic constants and activation energies along with heat of reactions for each reaction are given in the table below ([DNS], [Mehran Heydari], [Praveen ch. shishir sinha]); (Table: 6- reaction schemes with kinetic parameters) Reactions Rate constants (m3/ kg cat. hr.) Activation energy (KJ/Kmol) Heat of reaction (KJ/Kg) VGO CLO 14.93 50.73 45.821 VGO LCO 5.78 50.73 79.213 VGO GASOLINE 11.69 50.73 92.335 VGO LPG 3.59 16.15 159.315 VGO DRYGAS 0.35 16.15 159.315 VGO COKE 11.55 16.15 159.315 CLO LCO 5.78 50.73 56.314 CLO GASOLINE 0.94 46.24 128.571 CLO LPG 0.135 59.75 455.185 CLO DRYGAS 0.0135 59.75 455.185 CLO COKE 0.3272 59.75 455.185 LCO GASOLINE 0.5742 46.24 93.030 LCO LPG 0.0086 59.75 704.93 LCO DRYGAS 0.0009 59.75 704.93 LCO COKE 0.0596 59.75 704.93 GASOLINE LPG 0.0003 78.49 372.10 GASO DRYGAS 0.0001 78.49 372.10 LPG DRYGAS 0.0033 59.75 32.30 The riser model is assumed to be a two phase model

Major Themes in Faulkners Light in August :: Light August Essays

Major Themes in Faulkner's Light in August  Ã‚      Faulkner's Light in August is a metaphor. In fact it is many metaphors, almost infinitely many. It is a jumble of allusions, themes, portraits, all of them uniquely important, many of them totally unrelated. In fact no 20th century writer has even approached the sheer quantity of symbolism Faulkner packed into every page, with, perhaps, the exception of James Joyce who went so far as to surpass Faulkner in this regard. So obviously it would be foolish to attempt to trace every line, follow every branch to its root, one could spend a lifetime dissecting the book in this manner. Fortunately, in the midst of this menagerie of wonders, there are dominate themes. There are veins of meaning that permeate throughout. Chief among them; Faulkner's study of 20th century man's search for identity, and his compassionate portrait of the origins of evil.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I have come from Alabama a fur piece (Faulkner, p.3). The reader begins the book in this manner, following the simple-minded and determined Lena as she travels, neither coming nor going, simply moving. Immediately the book draws into her past, relating events leading up to this point, explaining her motives. One gets a definite feel for her character, and settles into her narrative, but as soon as this happens, the book switches gears, turning instead to a vague character, Joe Christmas. With little introduction, or warning, the book reels into Joe's past, catching the reader totally unaware and throwing off the entire continuity of the book. Faulkner's desire for unity and coherence in the pattern is not as strong as is his desire for truth to individual response (Reed, p.123). Thus Lena is a frame, she serves only to accentuate Christmas's story, by contrast. Faulkner demands the reader follow, and realize this.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   So we now see Christmas's childhood. From the beginning, Christmas is two things. One, he is a totally clean slate in that he has no idea whatsoever of his past, his origins. He is neither predestined to good nor evil, simply born. By this same token, Christmas is left confused. Because he has no idea of his origins, he has no idea of self, even to the extent of not being sure of his

Formative Assessment Essay

The Rape of the Lock, written by Pope in response to a feud between two friends about the theft of a lock of hair, is revolutionary in its evolution of the comic satire genre into the field of epic poetry. Pope, an avid student of the Greek epics (he produced his own translations of some that provided much of his income during his life), takes the basic skeleton of an epic: its structure, critical content and even linguistic points; and crafts around the skeleton a poem of wit and comedy that is at its core epic, but also uses this very epic backbone to undermine its tales own importance and to satirise the content that has been moulded around the form. This creation from Pope marks the offshoot of the epic genre, transforming it into mock epic, an independent genre that bears many of the traits of its forebearer in a new light. The transformations to the epic that Pope undertakes in the Rape of the Lock to satiric effect can be broadly split into transformations of heroic content and transformations of heroic language. The former can be clearly observed here: Pope takes a staple of epic writing, heroic weaponry, and twists its use to his satirical needs. The weapon itself is given, through the use of a similar description, equal place with great weapons like Agamemnon’s sceptre, whose lineage was used to reinforce Agamemnon’s dominance and power in the Iliad, being forged by Hephaestus and owned by the Gods from Zeus to Kronos. Belinda’s weapons lineage is far less great. Instead of a scepter, the weapon of kings and priests in Homer’s writing, Belinda wields a bodkin, a hair needle. Even that difference itself is satirical: Agamemnon’s kingship is of great import to the Iliad so the parallel with a bodkin, which links to the hair in question much like the scepter links with kingship, makes a clear statement on the relative importance of the quarrel in the Rape of the Lock. The lineage too satirises the pointlessness of dispute: no claim of divinity (and thus righteousness) is made on the part of Belinda’s weapon; in fact its lineage mainly consists of feminine objects with the only male mentioned in its lineage also being the only one to explicitly be mentioned dying. Perhaps Pope, often accused of being somewhat sexist, is using this contrast and development to imply that the whole issue is a woman’s trifle and nothing next to the male quarrels of Achilles and Agamemnon. On top of this, the weapon is not the fixed centre of the lineage as in the Iliad, in which the weapon started as a divine weapon and stayed that way. Instead the object is mutable: it starts as signet rings, develops into a buckle and then becomes a bodkin. Pope changes up the epic formula of the mighty weapon into something changeable and thus insignificant, paralleling with the argument he is satirising, the implication being that it is insignificant and will easily be forgotten. The weapon also shows another perversion of the epic poem that Pope uses. Protection, be it through armour or weaponry, tends to have a high place in the Greek epics. Heroes often wear famed suits of armour or use shields/weapons to survive insurmountable odds (for example the reflective shield in Perseus’ tale in Ovid’s Metamorphoses that slays Medusa). This element of protection, divine or otherwise, is a theme that Pope subverts consistently. From the slyph Ariel who is â€Å"half dissolv’d† even by light to the â€Å"Cosmetic powers† of her dress and make-up, nothing effectively protects Belinda. The bodkin is no different, it fails to protect her locks from being cut in the initial case, and here, although she uses it to attack the Baron, it fails to return its charge, her hair, to her. Pope is modernising traditional epics, using these typical ‘protections’ to mock high societies fixation on appearance. All of her outward facing beauty and quaint bodkin’s cannot protect her from the advances of a single man, so what, Pope asks, is the use of all this artifice? Pope also mutates generic language elements from epic literature for his satirical intentions. In this passage, the clearest example is in his use of the ten syllable rhyming heroic couplet. Pope takes the rhyme of the couplet and uses it to link together two separate words or ideas, often to a comical effect. Here, in the lines, â€Å"Nor feared the chief the unequal fight to try, Who sought no more than on his foe to die. â€Å" Pope has the first line of the couplet set up the Baron’s bravery by expounding his fearlessness in fighting against Belinda in â€Å"unequal† combat (ironic in itself due to Belinda’s natural weakness compared to his â€Å"manly strength† referred to in the next couplet) before defeating the heroic xpectancy with a sexual pun; the phrase â€Å"to die† holding at the time a dual meaning referring to sexual climax, and often premature climax at that. His heroism is built up and destroyed within a couplet with the contrast of noble bravery and base desire providing a humorous and satirical twist on the typical heroism of the heroic couplet by suggesting that the drive behind the Baron’s actions is, at its deepest level, sexual, rather than noble or courtly.

Jackie Robinson Assessment

1. Many people agree that Robinson was not the best player in the Negro League in the mid 1940s. If so why did Rickey choose him? Because he wasn’t looking for the best baseball player, he was looking for a player who was talented, with a background beyond criticism, with an unshakable self-control and with a good winner attitude. He thought that Robinson would be ideal to break the color line of the Major League Baseball teams, plus he was a very good player.2. Do you think professional sports would be the same today if it had not been for Robinson? I think Robinson played a very big role in the history of sports in America because today some of the most watched sports in the country like baseball (MLB) or basketball (NBA) are mostly formed by African-American players. If it had not been for Robinson I think sports in America wouldn’t be the same as they are now.3. Do you think Robinson’s success with the Dodgers had any impact beyond sports? I think Robinsonâ⠂¬â„¢s success with the Brooklyn Dodgers had a very big impact beyond sports because since he made it to an all white league and be actually successful in it, it motivated to other players of all negro leagues to became better and try to make it to this new opportunity that they had. I think Robinson played a big role in the history of sports of America and that’s why now he’s one of the biggest names in history of baseball. ï » ¿Jackie Robinson Assessment 1. Many people agree that Robinson was not the best player in the Negro League in the mid 1940s. If so why did Rickey choose him? Because he wasn’t looking for the best baseball player, he was looking for a player who was talented, with a background beyond criticism, with an unshakable self-control and with a good winner attitude. He thought that Robinson would be ideal to break the color line of the Major League Baseball teams, plus he was a very good player.2. Do you think professional sports would be the same today if it had not been for Robinson? I think Robinson played a very big role in the history of sports in America because today some of the most watched sports in the country like baseball (MLB) or basketball (NBA) are mostly formed by African-American players. If it had not been for Robinson I think sports in America wouldn’t be the same as they are now.3. Do you think Robinson’s success with the Dodgers had any impact beyond sports? I think Robinsonâ⠂¬â„¢s success with the Brooklyn Dodgers had a very big impact beyond sports because since he made it to an all white league and be actually successful in it, it motivated to other players of all negro leagues to became better and try to make it to this new opportunity that they had. I think Robinson played a big role in the history of sports of America and that’s why now he’s one of the biggest names in history of baseball.

Free Essays on Annotated Bibliography

I believe that juveniles are responsible for most of the crimes committed. Every day, crime shatters the peace in our Nation's neighborhoods. Violent crime and the fear it engenders cripple our society, threaten personal freedom, and fray the ties that are essential for healthy communities. No corner of America is safe from increasing levels of criminal violence, including violence committed by and against juveniles. Parents are afraid to let their children walk to school alone. Children hesitate to play in neighborhood playgrounds. The elderly lock themselves in their homes, and innocent Americans of all ages find their lives changed by the fear of crime. Allen-Hagen, B., M. Sickmund, and H. Snyder. 1994 (November). Juveniles and Violence: Juvenile Offending and Victimization. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. This fact sheet presents statistical data and trends about juvenile offenders and juvenile victims of violence. Between 1988 and 1992, juvenile arrests for violent crime, juvenile gun use, weapons arrests, weapons carrying, and gang membership increased dramatically. Data are provided on juvenile victims of violent crime, particularly homicide. The fact sheet also discusses Federal approaches to child maltreatment. Cities In Schools, Inc., Seeds of Hope: A Guide for Program Resources. 1995. Alexandria, Va. This guide of resources that help those involved in child rearing is organized into four focus areas. The four focuses are Preschool/family, School, Community, and Early Intervention, which support the basic principles of Cities In Schools, Inc. The four principles are as follows: Every child needs and deserves a personal, one-on-one relationship with a caring adult; every child needs and deserves a safe place to learn and grow; every child needs and deserves a marketable skill to use upon graduation; and every child needs and deserves a chance to giv... Free Essays on Annotated Bibliography Free Essays on Annotated Bibliography I believe that juveniles are responsible for most of the crimes committed. Every day, crime shatters the peace in our Nation's neighborhoods. Violent crime and the fear it engenders cripple our society, threaten personal freedom, and fray the ties that are essential for healthy communities. No corner of America is safe from increasing levels of criminal violence, including violence committed by and against juveniles. Parents are afraid to let their children walk to school alone. Children hesitate to play in neighborhood playgrounds. The elderly lock themselves in their homes, and innocent Americans of all ages find their lives changed by the fear of crime. Allen-Hagen, B., M. Sickmund, and H. Snyder. 1994 (November). Juveniles and Violence: Juvenile Offending and Victimization. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. This fact sheet presents statistical data and trends about juvenile offenders and juvenile victims of violence. Between 1988 and 1992, juvenile arrests for violent crime, juvenile gun use, weapons arrests, weapons carrying, and gang membership increased dramatically. Data are provided on juvenile victims of violent crime, particularly homicide. The fact sheet also discusses Federal approaches to child maltreatment. Cities In Schools, Inc., Seeds of Hope: A Guide for Program Resources. 1995. Alexandria, Va. This guide of resources that help those involved in child rearing is organized into four focus areas. The four focuses are Preschool/family, School, Community, and Early Intervention, which support the basic principles of Cities In Schools, Inc. The four principles are as follows: Every child needs and deserves a personal, one-on-one relationship with a caring adult; every child needs and deserves a safe place to learn and grow; every child needs and deserves a marketable skill to use upon graduation; and every child needs and deserves a chance to giv...

The Renaissance Art Period - About.com Art History

The Renaissance Art Period - About.com Art History We all know what the Renaissance was, correct? Michelangelo, Leonardo, Raphael, and company created some fabulous paintings and sculptures that we continue to marvel over many centuries later and so on and so forth. (Hope you are nodding your head right now and thinking Yes, yes - please get on with it!) While these were vitally important artists, and their collective work is what usually comes to mind when one hears the word Renaissance, as so often happens in life things arent quite that simple. The Renaissance (a word which literally means born anew) is a name weve given to a period in Western history during which the arts - so important in Classic cultures - were revived. The arts had quite a difficult time remaining important during the Middle Ages, given all of the territorial struggles that were occurring throughout Europe. People living then had enough to do merely figuring out how to stay in the good graces of whoever was ruling them, while the rulers were preoccupied with maintaining or expanding control. With the large exception of the Roman Catholic Church, no one had much time or thought left over to devote toward the luxury of art. It will come as no surprise, then, to hear that the Renaissance had no clear-cut beginning date, started first in those areas which had the highest relative levels of political stability and spread, not like wildfire, but in a series of different phases which occurred between the years c. 1150 and c. 1600. What were the different phases of the Renaissance? In the interest of time, lets break this topic down into four broad categories. The Pre- (or Proto-) Renaissance began in a northern enclave of present-day Italy sometime around 1150 or so. It didnt, at least initially, represent a wild divergence from any other Medieval art. What made the Proto-Renaissance important was that the area in which it began was stable enough to allow explorations in art to develop. Fifteenth-century Italian Art, often (and not incorrectly) referred to as the Early Renaissance, generally means artistic goings-on in the Republic of Florence between the years 1417 and 1494. (This doesnt mean nothing happened prior to 1417, by the way. The Proto-Renaissance explorations had spread to include artists throughout northern Italy.) Florence was the spot, for a number of factors, that the Renaissance period really caught hold and stuck. Sixteenth-century Italian Art is a category which contains three separate topics. What we now call the High Renaissance was a relatively brief period which lasted from roughly 1495 to 1527. (This is the little window of time referred to when one speaks of Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael.) The Late Renaissance took place between 1527 and 1600 (again, this is a rough time table) and included the artistic school known as Mannerism. Additionally, The Renaissance thrived in Venice, an area so unique (and supremely disinterested with Mannerism) that an artistic school has been named in its honor. Northern European Renaissance The Renaissance in Northern Europe struggled to come into being, mostly due to the stranglehold Gothic art maintained for centuries and the fact that this geographical region was slower to gain political stability than was northern Italy. Nonetheless, the Renaissance did occur here, beginning around the middle of the fourteenth century and lasting until the Baroque movement (c. 1600). Now lets explore these Renaissances to get an idea of which artists did what (and why we still care), as well as learning the new techniques, mediums and terms that came from each. You can follow any of the hyperlinked words (theyre blue and are  underlined) in this article to go to the part of the Renaissance that interests you most.

10 Interesting Facts About New Orleans

10 Interesting Facts About New Orleans New Orleans is the largest city in the United States state of Louisiana with a 2008 population of 336,644 people. The New Orleans Metropolitan area, which includes the cities of Kenner and Metairie, had a 2009 population of 1,189,981 which made it the 46th largest metropolitan area in the United States. Its population dropped dramatically after Hurricane Katrina and the subsequent severe flooding hit the city in 2005.The City of New Orleans is located on the Mississippi River in southeastern Louisiana. The large Lake Pontchartrain also lies within the city limits. New Orleans is most well known for its distinctive French architecture and French culture. It is famous for its food, music, multicultural events and the Mardi Gras festival held in the city. New Orleans is also known as the birthplace of jazz.The following is a list of 10  important geographic facts about New Orleans. The City of New Orleans was founded under the name La Nouvelle-Orlà ©ans on May 7, 1718, by Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville and the French Mississippi Company. The city was named after Phillipe dOrlà ©ans, who was Frances head of state at the time. In 1763, France lost control of the new colony to Spain with the Treaty of Paris. Spain then controlled the region until 1801, at which time, it was passed back to France.  In 1803 the region encompassing New Orleans and surrounding areas was sold by Napoleon to the United States with the Louisiana Purchase. The city then began to grow considerably with a variety of different ethnicities.After became a part of the United States, New Orleans also began to play a large role in international relations as it developed into a large port. The port then played a role in the Atlantic slave trade but also the exportation of different commodities and the importing of international goods for the rest of the nation up the Mississippi River.Thr oughout the rest of the 1800s and into the 20th century, New Orleans continued to grow rapidly as its port and fishing industry remained important for the rest of the country. In the end of the 20th century, growth in New Orleans continued but planners became aware of the citys vulnerability to flooding after erosion of wetlands and marshes. In August 2005, New Orleans was hit by the category five Hurricane Katrina and 80 percent  of the city was flooded after a failure of the citys levees. 1,500 people died in Hurricane Katrina and much of the citys population permanently relocated.New Orleans is located on the banks of the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain about 105 miles (169 km) north of the Gulf of Mexico. The total area of the city is 350.2 square miles (901 sq km).The climate of New Orleans considered humid subtropical with mild winters and hot, humid summers. The average July high temperature for New Orleans is 91.1 °F (32.8 °C) while the average January low is 43.4 °F (6.3 °C).New Orleans is known for its world-famous architecture and areas like the French Quarter and Bourbon Street are popular areas for tourists. The city is one of the top ten most visited cities in the U.S.The economy of New Orleans is based largely on its port but also on oil refining, petrochemical production, fishing and th e service sector related to tourism. New Orleans is home to two of the largest private universities in the United States- Tulane University and Loyola University New Orleans. Public universities like the University of New Orleans are also within the city.

Retailing story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Retailing story - Essay Example Man’s breaking his bond with nature came about when Victor decided to play god and deprived nature of its natural prerogative to create life. Victor wanted to separate himself from the rest of nature by validating to himself that he can be god through the creation of another life which is a validation of his superiority compared to other men. In today’s context, this could be taken as Victor’s pride that he is better than everyone else of which almost all societies and culture suffer. When Victor came to life, he became the personification of man’s desire to be god which the product of such attempt attests how vile the idea is. The monster, being an assortment of parts of men, is an unhappy product of man’s inexorable nature and its heart is â€Å"a collection of the emotions that he has to be bear throughout his strange life† (Kessler 87). It has no â€Å"center† or a soul because it failed to grasp the breadth of human experience tha t includes joy, happiness, ecstasy, that makes one a truly human being. The monster had only a glimpse of hope of what it is like to be compassionate when the family cottagers took him in. â€Å"Nothing could exceed the love and respect which the younger cottagers exhibited towards their venerable companion. They performed towards him every little office of affection and duty with gentleness, and he rewarded them by his benevolent smiles† (Shelley 82). But even that hazy idea of hope and compassion was immediately extinguished when the same family who took him in drove him away. One can only imagine what the monster felt when the only positive experience he had was taken away from him leaving him hanging and in pain. In sum, the tale was an articulation of man’s arrogance and the consequential pain and suffering because of it which is a theme that is universal to all culture which explains why Frankenstein is still told today not only in our books, but also in our movi es, plays and even comics. II. Retelling the story Shelley’s novel Frankenstein reveals the flaws of human character with the character of Victor Frankenstein. It revealed man’s tendency to become arrogant and to act like God when he already knows so much. When Victor assented to the monster that he will create him a partner, he already assumed to have God like capabilities with what he knows about science. As it was wrong in the beginning, a series of tragedy followed beginning with the murder of Victor’s bride Elizabeth during their wedding night. Victor was inconsolable and filled with revenge as what the monster did to his bride that he became preoccupied about chasing the monster to avenge Elizabeth’s death and became a figurative monster himself. But since he does not have the physical prowess to overcome Frankenstein, Victor created another formula to make him a greater monster to defeat Victor and avenge his wife. He also had the impression that F rankenstein must have a good time destroying everything he touches because he is invincible and therefore cannot be punished with its consequences. So he made a formula to the effect of Mr. Hyde only ten times stronger to make him stronger than Frankenstein. The formula was so potent that when it was injected to Victor, he became uglier than Frankenstein and his physical state became permanent. In the process of

Management thories Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Management thories - Essay Example This research will explore the contribution of Hofestede to our understanding of the effect of culture to international management practices of organisations. Through utilisation of a huge database of statistics on culture, Hofestede managed to come up with an analysis of the patterns describing the similarities and differences of cultures in five main dimensions. His research focused only on international business managers, which enabled him to come up with a true picture of how culture influences management of international organisations. These five dimensions include power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty and long-term orientation (Smith, Peterson & Schwartz 2002, p. 235). Power distance refers to the level of inequality that prevails among people (Smith, Dugan & Trompenaars 1996, p. 241). This inequality is acceptable by all people, both those with power and those without power. A high power distance society accepts inequality in the distribution of power and the members have a good understanding of their position in the system. With a low power distance society, there are an equal sharing of power and a high dispersion of power. The members in a low power society consider themselves equal. This idea means that in a high power nation such as Malaysia, reports will only reach the topmost managers who will hold meetings in a closed room with only the presence of powerful leaders (Smith, Dugan & Trompenaars 1996, p. 246). Individualism is a reflection of the strength of the relationships possessed by the people concerning others in the entire community. A high level of individualism means that there are no tight connections among them. It also means that there is a low degree of sharing of responsibilities except for family members that can only include the few closest friends. On the other hand, in a society where individualism is low, there is

Social class Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Social class - Term Paper Example Though religion has been modified and seems to sustain a much less influential presence in modern society, it is still very much relevant for predicting certain social attitudes and behaviors. There is a well-known sociological theory known as symbolic interactionism which views society as being composed of symbols that are used by people to develop their world view and assist in communications with one another (Henslin, 24). This theory believes that people develop their sense of self based on cultural, environmental or lifestyle symbols and then relate these to the process of building self-identity amongst broader society. Religion has been a fundamental symbol for generations, inspiring art, music, architecture, and glorious church construction. These symbols â€Å"are a great heritage of beauty to all humankind† (Diessner, Solom, Frost, Parsons & Davidson, 304). Under the symbolic interactionism theory, people with a strong commitment to recognizing and esteeming religious principles would find meaning in this pursuit by exposure to these long-standing sociological principles and design constructs. Finding a sense of self beauty through recognition of these rel igious symbols would theoretically assist in developing a positive self-concept measured by symbolic figures rather than through, necessarily, social interaction with others. Traditional religious beliefs include Confucianism, a passive religious belief system that imposes learning, duty, responsibility and tolerance as part of its model (Zhang & Veenhoven, 428). Confucianism believes in self-reflection as part of daily lifestyle and acts as the precondition for improving oneself. The religious symbols such as music and church architecture provide a form of stability and an environment in which to seek perfection. It represents finding commonality with religious icons and through this effort finding their place in the world historically and in modern culture. The goal of communing with

Physician-Patient Interaction Adaptation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Physician-Patient Interaction Adaptation - Essay Example Based on these theories, the proponents substantially built a framework for their study which essentially included the concept of non-verbal communication in maintaining or obtaining genuine relationships in health care. The subjects included in this study were physicians and their respective patients confined in the hospital. The proponents were interested to dig on the non-verbal communication that existed between the physician and the patients and their probable mutual responses. Based on these responses, the researchers then had enough starting point to conclude that in physician-patient communication, mutual influence could probably exist. B. Identify the object of study (What is the researcher using to build their arguments and answer their questions?). The researchers collected sufficient number of articles or researches that are related to their study. From these studies, they tried to find important gaps particularly on the importance of effective communication in delivering quality standard health care service. They have elaborately discussed the psychosocial concerns in physician-patient interactions (Duggan & Bradshaw, 2008). All of these have become the basis of what method they should use in their study. They decided to employ videotaping technique in order to document the actual non-verbal responses of their subjects. All of the patients involved in the study were having chronic illnesses so dealing with them might probably be one of the most challenging activities for their entire treatment process. Effective communication process should be substantially required from the attending physician so as to come up with effective response such as cooperation from the patients. The proponents of the study tried to see to it that this important information should be documented through a videotape. C. Summarize the main inferences/conclusions of this article (In your own words, write the key conclusions presented in the article). The article found that no n-verbal cues or responses coming from physicians would potentially create specific reactions from patients. The said response from patients was found to be positive because it would improve the patient-physician interaction through a positive communication process prior to the delivery of quality care. What so central about this study is the ability of the researchers to find ways to investigate whether patients and physicians reciprocate nonverbal rapport-building communication behaviors and talk about how illness affects roles and relationships (Duggan & Bradshaw, 2008). D. Offer a practical application of the research (Explain how this research can have a real life application). Doctors or physicians are the ones patients would listen to as far as they would want to hear opinions regarding their health condition. Patients even confide personal and confidential information just to be able to receive the right diagnosis. It is therefore important that doctors should be able to lis ten to their patients effectively through a very effective communication process. Effective communication process as stated in the research would create rapport, and improve relationship-centered interaction between the doctor and patient, and all these can be shown in their non-verbal responses (Duggan & Bradshaw, 2008). In other words, the said research and its important findings about the importance of communication can be used by doctors and patients most particularly on improving the quality of health and service care. Doctors in particular

McDonalds Business Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 9500 words

McDonalds Business Strategy - Essay Example By 1968, the chain comprised 1,000 units, which rose to 5,000 units by 1978. By 2001, the company operated around 30,000 units worldwide. Whilst keeping menus limited, McDonald's diversified its range from its original hamburgers and cheeseburgers. In 1964, the company launched its Filet-o-Fish sandwich, followed by signature burger the Big Mac in 1968, Happy Meals in 1979 and Chicken McNuggets in 1983. (Keynote, 2003; Leitch; 2004) While the majority of sales remain concentrated on burgers and fries, drinks and desserts are important and the brand periodically experiments with other menu additions, such as salads and local specialities. McDonald’s currently gearing up for the introduction of a new salad range in 2006. The late-1990s saw McDonald's shift its focus, as burger fast food, especially in the US, seemed dangerously crowded and mature. Consequently, McDonald’s focused on diversification, introducing new menu items and aiming to attract a more adult demographic, while retaining its core consumer base of children. 2000 saw the introduction of salads, low-fat desserts and a wider choice of chicken and fish burgers. The company also began to relax the McDonald's formula, introducing more regional menu variations and experimenting with new formats, such as cafà ©s and kiosks. This strategy of diversification also resulted in a number of acquisitions during the review period, seeing a shift away from its traditional single-brand focus. In 1998, McDonald’s purchased London-based coffee chain Aroma and in 1999 and 2000 McDonald’s purchased US chains Donatos Pizzeria with an emphasis on â€Å"home-cooked meal† style fast food. ... The company also began to relax the McDonald's formula, introducing more regional menu variations and experimenting with new formats, such as cafs and kiosks. This strategy of diversification also resulted in a number of acquisitions during the review period, seeing a shift away from its traditional single-brand focus. In 1998, McDonald's purchased London-based coffee chain Aroma and in 1999 and 2000 McDonald's purchased US chains Donatos Pizzeria (Ohio based), Mexican self-service cafeteria brand Chipotle (Denver based) and Boston Market with an emphasis on "home-cooked meal" style fast food. Beyond acquisitions, McDonald's also made a series of strategic investments. In February 2001, McDonald's acquired a minority interest (33%) in the British sandwich chain Pret a Manger. In 2002, McDonald's formed a joint venture with Fazoli's, a fast casual Italian restaurant concept based in Lexington, Kentucky, to develop 20-30 Fazoli's restaurants in the US. (Leitch; 2004) This also gave McDonald's the option to purchase the entire company at a later date. The company also opened its first multibranded unit, offering Boston Market, Donatos and McDonald's. However, these acquisitions did not prove wholly successful. In 2002, the company experienced a difficult year, culminating in its first ever quarterly loss. This poor performance was partly due to weak economies in Latin America and APMEA (Asia-Pacific, Middle East and Africa) and to increasing competition in mature US and Western European fast food. However, the company also felt that its strategy of brand diversification was d iluting its focus on core brand McDonald's. In 2002, Aroma was sold to Caff Nero and in 2003

By drawing on examples examine the impact of social networking sites Essay - 1

By drawing on examples examine the impact of social networking sites on society - Essay Example Trends and statistics suggest that the sector has not only brought about significant transformation in the manner in which people interact but has also has acted as a major stimulus for global business (Gatautis, 2008). From social issues to political agendas and corporate strategies, all aspects of society are embraced and catered to by social networking sites. These sites offer a platform to the users to exchange their ideas, anonymously or publicize their views and announce it to the world. It is this flexibility offered by the SNS that makes it the most sought after internet trend in contemporary times. The term social networking is often used interchangeably with other terms such as internet social networking, social web sites, or social networking services; although all of them convey the same meaning. According to Richter et al., (2009) Internet social networking can be defined as "the phenomenon of social networking on the internet". While Kim et al, (2010) define social web sites as "those web sites which make it possible for people to form online communities and share user-created contents". The social networking sites have caused significant impact in various spheres of an individual’s everyday life including the social, political as well as economical. Some of which are discussed below. The probable impact of social networking as a phenomenon on the society can be perceived and gauged in more ways than one. For instance, social networking sites such as Facebook offers users an opportunity to create common interest groups and help them exchange their ideas and present their views in a group of likeminded individuals, thus empowering them to voice their opinions, say for instance, against social injustice or in favor of a social cause. The strength of collective action is magnified by sharing and exchanging of ideas through common groups and helps bring about

McDonalds Business Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 9500 words

McDonalds Business Strategy - Essay Example By 1968, the chain comprised 1,000 units, which rose to 5,000 units by 1978. By 2001, the company operated around 30,000 units worldwide. Whilst keeping menus limited, McDonald's diversified its range from its original hamburgers and cheeseburgers. In 1964, the company launched its Filet-o-Fish sandwich, followed by signature burger the Big Mac in 1968, Happy Meals in 1979 and Chicken McNuggets in 1983. (Keynote, 2003; Leitch; 2004) While the majority of sales remain concentrated on burgers and fries, drinks and desserts are important and the brand periodically experiments with other menu additions, such as salads and local specialities. McDonald’s currently gearing up for the introduction of a new salad range in 2006. The late-1990s saw McDonald's shift its focus, as burger fast food, especially in the US, seemed dangerously crowded and mature. Consequently, McDonald’s focused on diversification, introducing new menu items and aiming to attract a more adult demographic, while retaining its core consumer base of children. 2000 saw the introduction of salads, low-fat desserts and a wider choice of chicken and fish burgers. The company also began to relax the McDonald's formula, introducing more regional menu variations and experimenting with new formats, such as cafà ©s and kiosks. This strategy of diversification also resulted in a number of acquisitions during the review period, seeing a shift away from its traditional single-brand focus. In 1998, McDonald’s purchased London-based coffee chain Aroma and in 1999 and 2000 McDonald’s purchased US chains Donatos Pizzeria with an emphasis on â€Å"home-cooked meal† style fast food. ... The company also began to relax the McDonald's formula, introducing more regional menu variations and experimenting with new formats, such as cafs and kiosks. This strategy of diversification also resulted in a number of acquisitions during the review period, seeing a shift away from its traditional single-brand focus. In 1998, McDonald's purchased London-based coffee chain Aroma and in 1999 and 2000 McDonald's purchased US chains Donatos Pizzeria (Ohio based), Mexican self-service cafeteria brand Chipotle (Denver based) and Boston Market with an emphasis on "home-cooked meal" style fast food. Beyond acquisitions, McDonald's also made a series of strategic investments. In February 2001, McDonald's acquired a minority interest (33%) in the British sandwich chain Pret a Manger. In 2002, McDonald's formed a joint venture with Fazoli's, a fast casual Italian restaurant concept based in Lexington, Kentucky, to develop 20-30 Fazoli's restaurants in the US. (Leitch; 2004) This also gave McDonald's the option to purchase the entire company at a later date. The company also opened its first multibranded unit, offering Boston Market, Donatos and McDonald's. However, these acquisitions did not prove wholly successful. In 2002, the company experienced a difficult year, culminating in its first ever quarterly loss. This poor performance was partly due to weak economies in Latin America and APMEA (Asia-Pacific, Middle East and Africa) and to increasing competition in mature US and Western European fast food. However, the company also felt that its strategy of brand diversification was d iluting its focus on core brand McDonald's. In 2002, Aroma was sold to Caff Nero and in 2003

Healthy Eating Habits of African Americans Essay Example for Free

Healthy Eating Habits of African Americans Essay America is an overweight nation with many being considered obese; African Americans in particular, make up a considerable fraction of the population due mainly to culturally poor eating habits and inactive lifestyles. The latest Gallup-Healthways well-being Index survey shows that up to 63. 1% of the US population was overweight or obese in 2009. That means two out of every three adults and 17% of children in this country are overweight. Out of that number, approximately 60% are African American men and 78% African American women. The survey also says that African Americans were the most likely to be obese at 36. 2% compared to a national average of 26. 5%. Disturbingly, African Americans rank at the top of many similar health studies. This group is at a higher risk for chronic diseases. Chronic diseases are normally lifetime diseases that have no cure, but can be treated and maintained. African Americans lead all other ethnic groups in the nation in most statistics on obesity. Even though the numbers are alarming and a bit sobering, there are a variety of unhealthy habits that help contribute. The top reasons for many of these social and health issues lifestyle choices that can be prevented by proper education on health and fitness. For many Americans, poor lifestyle choices make for vulnerability to an assortment of health issues. One of the challenges for African Americans to overcome is healthy food choices. The cultural diet that many African Americans share makes this even more of a hurdle so to speak. African Americans have a rich family tradition of soul food that can present problems for today’s less active lifestyles. Many African Americans accept the notion that soul food is African-American recipes that have been handed down from generation to generation. â€Å"Soul food† meals traditionally depend on high levels of sugar, fat and salt for flavoring. Even though this may have some degree of truth to it, decreasing portion sizes and modifying recipes, can insure that blacks continue their cultural heritage of family eating traditions without expanding their waistlines. Decreasing the holesterol, fat and sodium content in their diets; African Americans can significantly reduce the risk of diabetes complications. Often these instructions by doctors and fitness experts result in dishes that can seem unfamiliar. According to the Department of Agriculture, (2002)11% of American households did not have access, at all times for to enough food for their family to support an active and healthy lifestyle. There is a direct relationship in the diets and eating habits of African Americans based on their socioeconomic status and education. African Americans have this and other cultural challenges to overcome. For example frying food is common method of cooking for African Americans due to the fast cooking time and versatility of meals that can be arranged quickly. The lack of affordability of higher quality meats, vegetables and fruits can also impact the opportunity leaner diets. A large amount of African Americans are on the poorer end of the poverty scale. Families scrambling to barely feed their households often select the cost conscious foods versus nutrition. The average African American family household income according to the Economic Census Bureau report (2007) was $33,916 compared to $54,920 for non-Hispanic White families. These issues are by no means excuses and in fact, change easily by a focus on health education and better diets alternatives. Meals can be modified by purchasing meats with less fat, fresh, green vegetables and fruit. African Americans can choose also choose better cooking methods such as baked, grilled or broiled. These methods can reduce saturated fats, cholesterol, and sodium while keeping the original, intended flavor of the food. Many cookbooks and recipes have been created to offer options and alternative to traditional soul food and unhealthy â€Å"quick† meals. African Americans of all ethnic groups in the United States have shown the most difficulty choosing diets that are low in fat and high in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. This would require a huge change in diet quality and working against this is the greater marketability of packaged and processed foods. The packagings of processed foods seem strategically designed to attract certain demographics and African Americans do not seem to be exempt. African Americans have the highest risk of almost all diet-related disease when compared to their non-Hispanic white counterparts. Heart disease, cancer, stroke, and diabetes are all leading causes of death in blacks. It’s a well know fact that being overweight can be dangerous to our health, however African Americans have to worry more about life-threatening disease like Type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease and certain forms of cancer. African Americans are twice as likely to be diagnosed with diabetes as non-Latin white adults. Type 2 diabetes is more prevalent in African Americans because fat interferes with body’s ability to use insulin. Death from heart disease was 30% more likely among African Americans compared to their white counterparts. (2005, CDC) The most serious forms of cancer like lung, prostate, breast, and stomach also are more likely to be a cause of death in blacks than whites. These often fatal diseases can be traced back to poor eating habits. Heart attacks are often discovered to start from blockage of arteries from high cholesterol and saturated fat. Proper screening and regular checkups is a proactive way to early detection. Many African Americans do not get blood screenings or physicals regular, let alone have a primary-care physician. Changing to more active lifestyles and a regular exercise routine are critical ingredients needed to reduce the chances African Americans have for stroke and heart attack. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, African Americans were 50% less likely to participate in active physical activity as non-Hispanic whites. Considering this, it’s of no surprise that they die from heart disease and stroke almost twice the rate of Whites also. A professor at the Pennington Biomedical Research Center in Louisiana, Robert Newton Jr. , PhD, said in his Exercise for African Americans article that one of the perceptions of African Americans have is the belief that work provides sufficient exercise. Many African Americans are blue collar workers and often do strenuous jobs. He goes on to say other so-called barriers African Africans declare prevents them from regular exercise are myths like messing up their hair styles or dislike of public showers. Whether there is any validity to these claims or not, African Americans must educate themselves on the benefits of regular exercise and the affects of an in-active lifestyle. There are many books, programs, clubs and social activities that offer the specific, specialized support African Americans need in order to improve their overall health as a group. Many unhealthy habits of African Americans can be changed by simply adding in a regular exercise routine. Regular exercise brings along with it the desire to eat healthier. African Americans will first need to make some tough and ometimes unfamiliar choices. Choosing a family doctor or primary care physician is a positive step in the right direction. This is especially important when there are current health issues or one hasn’t been active lately. Educating themselves around the specific trends and downfalls they have as an ethnic group, can be a motivating factor in a lifestyle change. Also, developing a regular exercise routine will take firm commitment and discipline. One of the easiest ways African Americans can incorporate this into their current lifestyles is to start sneaking it into their daily activities. For example, they could take the stairs instead of the elevator at work, or go for walks during breaks or lunches. Even doing housework at a fast past can get the heart rate up and pumping. Yard work like raking leaves can provide extra-curricular activity too. Gym memberships and personals trainers can be a barrier to some African Americans due to the costs and fees associated with them. African Americans don’t have to look very far to find alternatives. Various local churches sponsor health programs or have created fitness committees to help improve their congregations health. A lot of companies sponsor mini-marathons or charity races to help a local cause and keep its staff in better physical shape. African Americans are still at the highest risk for a shorter life expectancy due to generations of poor eating habits and a lack of general health knowledge. These trends are evident in many Americans, but disproportionately still more in African Americans. With continued focus, attention and education by experts, schools, churches, even media and society as a whole, there can be a cultural shift. African Americans can close the gap between them and other ethnic groups in health statistics like obesity and body mass indexes (BMI). This is especially essential between blacks and non-Hispanic whites where the biggest gaps are evident. Chronic and diet related diseases like hypertension, diabetes, heart disease and cancer can all partly be attributed to lifestyle choices. Healthful living, proper diets, and active lifestyles can greatly improve the health of all Americans, but essentially the African American people.

Impacts Of Food Miles On Climate Change

Impacts Of Food Miles On Climate Change Todays food is well travelled. A pack of green beans in an European supermarket may have journeyed 6000 miles, or 60. While food miles loom large in our carbon-aware times, transporting it counts for less than you might think. This paper investigates the effectiveness of initiatives to reduce the number of food miles by their impact on climate change. The paper comes to the conclusion that food miles, the distance that food has travelled from farm to fork, indeed reduces the amount of greenhouse gas released. However, this does not imply that less food miles are a more sustainable way of producing. Moreover, the concept might be a justification for protectionist purposes and has significant negative side effects. Introduction Climate change is one of the greatest environmental threats of our time. The cause of climate change is mainly the emission of greenhouse gas as a result of human activity, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. A significant reduction of greenhouse gas emission is needed in order to the mitigate the effects on the climate. To accomplish this, two international treaties have been adopted: the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1992 and the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. The countries that ratified the Kyoto protocol committed to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gas by a given percent compared to their emission level in 1990 (Pinkse and Kolk, 2009). To achieve this, the EU has set the following targets: reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20%, improve energy efficiency by 20%, raise the share of renewable energies to 20% and raise the share of bio-fuels in road transport to 10%. These targets should all be achieved by the year 2020 (Confederation of Food and Drink Industries, 2008). Many industries have taken activities to cut energy use and emissions, in particular carbon dioxide (CO2), due to stricter legislative requirements and rising energy prices. Also the food industry is actively taking part in reducing energy and emissions, especially carbon dioxide. Example of such activities are the investment in energy efficient technologies, by voluntarily cutting energy use and even by participating in national energy efficiency schemes (Confederation of Food and Drink Industries, 2008). In household consumption, food has one of the highest impact on the environment. According to a study on the environmental impact of products, food and drinks cause 20 to 30% of the environmental impacts of private consumption (Tukker et al., 2006). In this study the food production and distribution chain has been fully analyzed and identifies products that are most greenhouse gas intensive. According to this study, meat, dairy, fats and oils are the most greenhouse gas intensive products. The estimated meats global warming potential ranges from about 4 to 12% of all products studied across the EU. Milk and dairy products are responsible for 2 to 4%, f ruits and vegetables for approximately 2%. The food chain consists of many different stages with many different players, like farmers, suppliers, transport companies, producers, retailers, consumers and waste management companies. At all stages of foods product life cycle there are activities that may have an impact on climate change. These include farming, manufacturing, processing, packaging, storage, transportation, consumption and disposal (Carlsson-Kanyama et al., 1997). It is estimated that the food industry accounts for about 1.5% of total greenhouse gas emissions in the EU. Within the whole food chain, agriculture accounts for 49% of greenhouse gas emissions, followed by the consumption (18%) and manufacturing (11%) (Confederation of Food and Drink Industry, 2008). Transportation is also an important contributor to greenhouse gas emission, because of the consumption of fuel and energy. Transport is estimated to account for 21 % of the greenhouse gas emissions in the EU, but it is unclear how much of these emissions sh ould be allocated specifically to food transportation (Confederation of Food and Drink Industry, 2008). Other impact on climate change in food production also depends on other factors, like the agricultural soil, the countrys climate, the intensity of use of fertilizers and chemicals, and the amount of energy and fuels used at different stages of the distribution chain. It is essential to take all these factors into account when estimating the impact of food products on climate change. However, this is not always possible or feasible, because of the complexity of the supply chain and the lack of available data. Food Miles Food miles, which accounts for the distance products have been travelling to reach the end consumer, has increased awareness recently. Nowadays many food products travel long distances before their final consumption. In the USA, for example, the food for one typical meal has travelled more than 2000 kilometers. And, if that meal contains any off-season fruit or vegetable the total distance is much more (Oxfam, 2009). It is commonly for food to be transported great distances to be packaged and processed, and then sent back in order to be sold near the place where it was produced. An example of this kind of practice is the shrimp industry in the Netherlands. There are several factors that have led to the increase in the distances food travels. These include: trade liberalization, sourcing from around the world, geographical centralization to achieve economies of scale, increased market share of retailers located out of the town of consumers, and finally, lower transportation costs of air freight, which relatively cheap compared to some other supply chain costs (Smith et al, 2005). As a result of the miles that food makes, emissions like CO2 are increasingly released, which contribute to climate change. The term food miles was introduced by the British non-governmental organization Sustainable Agriculture, Food and the Environment (SAFE) in 1994. They were the first to address the danger of long distances in food transportation. The concept implies that the lower the food miles, the less impact a product has on climate change. Therefore, consumers should be encouraged to buy locally produced food. Some retailers in Europe and North Americ a started promoting food miles initiative in order to address the problem of the long distances that food travels. These initiatives are often focused on promoting localism or regionalism in food sourcing. A few examples of these kind of initiatives will be discussed later. Food Miles Calculation Complexity In order to calculate the distance that food has travelled, the commonly used formula is the Weighted Average Source Distance. This formula combines information of the distances from production to point of sale (kilometers) and the amount of food product transported (Carlsson-Kanyama, 1997). The formula for the Weighted Average Source Distance is: ÃŽÂ £ (m(k) x d(k)) / ÃŽÂ £ m(k). Where k stand for the different location points of the production, m stand for the weight from each point of production, and d stand for distance from each point of production or sale. Although this formula looks quite simple, the application is rather difficult, because many food consist of multiple ingredients. Due to a lack of precise data about the exact distance of all ingredients, the calculation is often based on approximations. The formula does also not take into account how the food is transported (by marine, road, rail or air). This transport mode is important, because different transport mo des have different emissions per product unit. Drivers for Food Miles Initiatives There are five main drivers for initiatives to reduce food miles: NGO pressure, government support, consumer demand, food miles as a marketing concept and the potential reduction of costs. In the early 1990s British NGOs addressed the social and the environmental impacts caused by food miles. The main argument to support the food miles concept was the concern for climate change. It was implied that the longer the distance food travels, the more energy is consumed, the more fossil fuels are burned, and consequently the more greenhouse gases are released. Therefore the solution proposed was to source food from as close as possible to where it will be finally consumed (Saunders et al., 2006). Other arguments used included the concern that food that could be produced in the home country was imported instead, which causes a loss of income to local production, and also the concern that workers overseas might not be treated fairly (Oxfam, 2009). Some NGOs were specifically against air freig hting of food because this kind of transport is very energy intensive and causes the most negative externalities to the environment. They also addressed multilateral international trade, this is when a product was imported in the UK while the national production of that same product was exported from the country. As the solution to these problems, the British NGOs promoted to consume food that was locally produced (Saunders et al, 2006). Many EU countries support the concept of local food production and local food consumption. For example, the Italian government forces local authorities to include organic and local food in the school catering. The EU itself, although not directly supporting the concept of food miles, provides funding to support local food initiatives to develop farmers markets and local food brands (Euractiv, 2011). Food miles is seen as a possibility to improve environmental sustainability, because the distance and transport mode are important elements within the food chain as well as being associated with pollution from vehicle emissions (Saunders et al, 2006). Also the consumer awareness has raised the concern about the impact that food transportation has both environmentally and socially. This awareness has increased due to a few major food issues of the last decade (e.g. mad cow disease, foot and mouth disease, Q-fever, swine flu and the discussion about producing genetically modified food). These events have raised consumer interest about the origin and traceability of their food. Nowadays, many consumers and restaurant owners have a strong preference for local food product. An important reason why they choose local foods is because consumers have more trust in locally produced food since they know where it comes from. The concept of food miles has become familiar topic to the public, which lead to the consumers believe that food travelling a shorter distance is better for the environment. Consumers also argue that local food is more fresh and even tastes better than when it travelled long distances (Pirog and Benjamin, 2003). As already mentioned, consumers are interested in having the opportunity to purchase products that was produced and processed within their own region. These customers might be specifically interested in buying low food miles products due to their perceived freshness and quality (Pirog and Benjamin, 2003). Food retailers and food producers anticipate on this demand and use the food miles concept as a marketing tool. These marketing messages support the consumers perception that locally produced food is better. Therefore the food miles concept helps to differentiate products from the competition. Because climate change aspects are increasingly being included in business strategies, the concept of food miles is sometimes used by producers in marketing strategies to differentiate products from the international competition. An example of this is Friesland Campina, who only source from Dutch dairy farmers, and this actively promotes in advertisement. Campina customers also have the opport unity to trace their milk via an unique code on the milk cartons. The last driver is the potential cost reduction of transportation. The costs for food transportation is relatively cheap compared to other supply chain costs. The cost of shipping containers around the world is relatively low and fuel for aviation is not taxed. Also, for a long time air freight and shipment were included in the EU Emissions Trading Scheme, but this has been included in the ETS from 2011 onwards (Euractiv, 2007). Airlines will therefore have to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions or buy some sort of pollution credits on the carbon market. However, the EU recently initiated the first key measure to reduce the impact of air travel on global warming. The European Commission set an emissions cap for the aviation sector. Emissions trading for the aviation sector will start in January 2012 with a yearly allowance of 213 million tons of CO2 (Euractiv, 2011). This will increase the costs of transportation, including of food products. Therefore, it is interesting to integrat e the food miles concept in the procurement policy of a policy, because it might bring potential cost savings on airline freighting. Examples of Food Miles Initiatives As it was mentioned earlier, food quality, support of local community, food freshness and concern about the impact of transport on climate change have increased consumers interest in the origin and traceability of food, including a strong preference for locally produced food. Therefore, driven by consumer demand and with the objective to reduce food mileages of the products they distribute, big retailers made local sourcing initiatives a core aspect of their sustainable policies. The food miles concept can be used in two ways to reduce the environmental impact of food transport, the so called fewer miles and friendlier miles notions. Fewer miles means that companies and retailers are trying to reduce the overall distance that food travels. Such initiatives include local sourcing and greater capacity vehicles that carry more products in one trip. Friendlier miles are achieved when the environmental impact of the distance travelled is reduced by using less damaging forms of transport (such as rail or water compared to road or air) or by technological improvements in vehicle and fuel technologies to reduce the impact of any given mile (DEFRA Annual Report, 2007). The air-freighted labels, for consumers to identify products having been transported by plane, can be an example of friendlier miles initiatives as its final goal is to promote more sustainable transport modes. Ahold Ahold takes initiatives for fewer food miles. The supermarkets in the Ahold group are encouraged to source in a sustainable way and reduce their environmental footprint by buying local. In the United States, a product is considered local if it is sourced from the state or municipality in which the supermarkets operates. Many of the US stores operate in rich agricultural areas, so they are able to source many products locally. However, there are government regulations that restrict the use of the term local (especially when applied to dairy products), and this varies by state, region or municipality. In the United States, a local product program is executed during the local growing seasons. During 2010, Giant Food Stores and Martins Food Markets encouraged customers to follow the so called Local Route in stores that pointed the way to fresh products grown locally by farmers within their own communities. A second initiative is at Rimi Supermarket in Estonia. This initiative raises cons umer awareness about Estonian products by adding an Estonian flag label to products of Estonian origin. At some stores in Lithuania, local farm shops known as vikis have opened within the stores. Local farm produce in Rimi hypermarkets, where customers can buy high-quality products grown or produced by small- and medium-scale Lithuanian farmers. The shop-within-a-shop concept supports the idea of local sourcing and production, meeting the demands of customers and suppliers (Ahold, Corporate Responsibility Report 2010). Hellmanns Hellmanns has been taking another initiative to support fewer food miles. In 2009, the Unilever mayonnaise brand Hellmanns, campaigned for the consumption of local food in Canada. As part of its Eat real. Eat local campaign it was running a commercials that makes the Canadians wonder how far their food travels to get to their dinner tables. The campaign highlights the increasing tendency of food importation, and how this phenomenon influences the Canadian economy, the environment and communities. Food like cucumbers, tomatoes and peppers, which Canadians can grow in their own backyards, actually travel many miles and are hardly fresh by the time they are eaten. The message is mainly meant for Canadians, but could certainly be applied elsewhere. Although the climate change is mentioned the commercial, the main emphasis is on the threats to the domestic economy and not so much on the environmental consequences of food miles (Unilevers Sustainable Development Overview 2009). Heineken Heineken Netherlands recently took an initiative for friendlier miles. The beer and soda manufacturer, bottles more than 70% of its export beer in the brewery of Zoeterwoude. This means that large volumes of beer have to be transported via the highly populated roads of South Holland. In order to relieve the traffic around the brewery and to reduce the companys carbon footprint, it decided to build the a large container terminal along the channel. Since October 2010, Heineken transports all its export products by boat to the ports of Rotterdam and Antwerp. By this initiative, Heineken transports three-quarters of its the total transport over water instead, which is taken off the road. The initiative is expected to reduce the number of trucks on the road with 100.000 per years, who account for 6 million kilometers. Heineken reduces its emission of carbon dioxide with 35% (Heineken Sustainability Report, 2010). Marks and Spencer To address the problem of climate change caused by air traffic and to meet the customers interest in knowing how food is transported, the UK retailer Marks Spencer, started an initiative under the concept of friendlier food miles. Since 2007, they label the food that has been imported by air. Marks Spencer prints a small airplane symbol and the words air freighted (see Figure 1) on over 150 different food products, including beans and strawberries. Marks and Spencer has created this label for all of their air-freighted food to enable customers to identify products which have been transported by air and to help the company to ensure that this form of transport is used only where local alternatives are not available (Marks and Spencer, How We Do Business Report, 2010). Figure 1. Air freighted label. Strengths and limitations In this section, the main strengths and limitations of the food miles initiatives will be presented. It can be said that one of the main advantages of initiatives promoting local food, is that they can lead to a reduction of the amount of greenhouse gas emissions because food does not travel as far as if imported from other countries. Buying local food also has the advantage of promoting local farming, which, in turn, supports the local economy and the creation of new employment opportunities. It is also believed that local food is fresher and tastes better than food shipped long distances. However, it is questionable to what extent food miles really guarantees that a product sourced locally generates lower greenhouse gas emissions, and therefore whether implementing the food miles concept actually results in a lower climate change impact. An important limitation for the food miles concept is that it might is used as a justification for protectionism of the local economy. Therefore, the food miles concept has been criticized (Wilson, 2007). Since the main principle of food miles is to promote fewer miles and the consumption of local products, this might create unofficial import barriers for some countries to export their products because they travel long distances. Another limitation that can be used against the food miles concept is the fact that a single indicator based on the total distance food is transported, cannot be an adequate indicator of sustainability (Smith et al, 2005). A study carried out Smith et al for DEFRA came to the conclusion that a range of factors have an effect on the overall impacts of food transport, not only the miles travelled. The concept of food miles is therefore inadequate, since it excludes the climate impact of other aspects than transportation (DEFRA, 2005). Food transportation represents just one of many components of the total environmental impact of food production and consumption. When assessing the environmental impact of food, it is essential to take into account all those different factors, including how food was produced, packed, stored, as well, how and how far it was transported. As an example, Smith et al. found out that importing tomatoes from Spain during the winter generates less CO2 emissions than growing tomatoes in greenhouses in the UK (Figure 2). Local produced tomatoes in the UK (high emissions, low miles): Imported tomatoes from Spain (lower emissions, more miles): Figure 2. Represenation of CO2 emission, UK vs. Spain (Smith et al, 2005). Another example is from the horticulture industry, which coulis similar to many food products. Williams (2007) carried out a comparative study of the carbon impact of growing 12,000 quality cut stem roses in Kenya and air-freighting them, with growing them in the Netherlands and driving them to the UK. The results of the study are presented in the table below. It shows that the production and following export and delivery of Kenyan roses generates less greenhouse gas than the production and delivery of Dutch roses. This is mainly due to the fact that Kenyan production uses substantially less primary and fossil energy than the Dutch production (Williams, 2007). The results are presented in table 1 below. Kenyan Dutch Climate impact 2400 kgCO2e (without altitude impact) and 6200 kgCO2e (with altitude impact). 37 000 kgCO2e. Most carbon intensive stages Air freight (73-89% of climate impact). Heating and lighting of greenhouses (99% of climate impact). Other key differences Geothermal source for energy use and almost double the yield per unit area. Fossil intensive heating and lighting, and just over half the Kenyan yield rate. Table 1: Comparison of impacts for the production of 12,000 roses from Kenyan and The Netherlands (Williams, 2007) Pirog and Benjamin (2003) also showed that food miles might only represent a small percentage of the total energy inputs in a products life cycle. According to their study, transportation accounts for 11% of the energy use within the total food system, this is considerably less than agricultural production (17.5%) and processing (28.1%) (see Figure 3). To quantify the climate impact of a product, it is essential to consider all greenhouse gas emissions through the whole life cycle of the product and not only the ones related to transportation, or just looking at the distance in miles or kilometers. Figure 3. Energy use in the US food system (Pirog and Benjamin, 2003) Another problem with the food miles concept is that it does not take into account the mode of transport (Saunders et al, 2006). Air freight has by far the highest global warming potential of all transport modes. It is also important to note that there is also a significant difference between road and rail an boat transportation, the latter appears to be more climate-friendly transport modes than road. Transport efficiency also makes a difference. According to Smith et al (2005), there is also a concern that moving to lower food miles (e.g. local sourcing) can have a negative impact on overall transport and energy efficiency. They explain it by the fact that if there is a growth in business for smaller producers and retailers, there could be an increase in energy consumption as smaller vehicles are used and economies of scale in production are lost (Smith et al., 2005). There is also a concern that a reduction of food miles, in particular prohibiting air freighted products, could have an adverse impact on imports from developing countries. This concern is motivated by the fact that farmers in developing country are heavily dependent on exports to developed country markets (Oxfam, 2009). Therefore, restricting air freighted products on a large scale have high impact on farmers of Africa. In this way climate change is going to affect the poor in Africa harder than anyone else, which are the people who have done least to cause the problem. Some business therefore disapprove the use of an airplane symbol such as Marks and Spencers logo. Oxfam for example, supports the initiative for fair miles, one that also takes the fairness of trade with developing countries into consideration. Finally, there is discussion whether policies based on food miles could lead to an increase of food prices. On the one hand, reducing food miles might lead to reduced transportation costs, which, could reduce food prices. On the other hand, locally sourced food can be more expensive than globally sourced food, because economies of scale are lost or due to differences in labor costs (Smith et al, 2005). Conclusion It has been shown that food miles, although initially believed to be a potential good indicator of climate sustainability, has just limited benefits in terms of mitigating climate change. Food transportation represent one of many components of the total environmental impact of food production and consumption. When assessing the environmental impact of food, it is essential to take into account all those different factors, including how food was produced, packed, stored, as well as but not only, how and how far it was transported. The concept can be used for protectionist purposes, but has significant negative side effects. First of all, it is unclear what the impact is for product-related costs and food prices. The implementation of food miles can force companies to put particular attention to the efficiency of the food distribution system beyond their own operations. This leads in particular to a reduction of companies transport-related greenhouse gas emissions. From a cost perspect ive, the implementation of the food miles concept can potentially both reduce and increase companies costs, leading to an increase or decrease of food prices. On the one hand, reducing food miles might lead to reduced transportation costs. On another hand, locally sourced food can be more expensive than globally sourced food, because economies of scale are lost or due to higher labor costs. Secondly, a reduction of food miles, in particular prohibiting air freighted products, could have an adverse impact on imports from developing countries. To conclude, if food producers and retailers want to operate more sustainable ways and mitigate their impact on climate change, they should not only focus on food miles. While increased food transport obviously has an environmental impact, the kilometers that food travels do not per se serve as a valid indicator. The evidence is relatively weak in terms of local sourcing leading to lower impact as a general rule. In addition to environmental considerations, transport has to be seen in a wider context, taking account of the social and economic dimensions of sustainability, both in the EU and globally. Trade and transport is an inherent component of EU policy and it is essential to provide appropriate food supplies throughout the EU market and sufficient consumer choice. Moreover, sourcing products from non-EU countries, in particular developing countries, contributes to the development and wealth of those economies. A transport concept focusing on transport distances alone would there fore seriously undermine a number of key EU policy objectives in terms of social and economic sustainability.